Complete Entrance Study Guide

All Streams: Science | Management | Humanities | Education

With Formulas • Explanations • Examples • Notes

Stream	Main Subjects	Career Path
Science	Physics, Chemistry, Biology/Math, English, Nepali	Engineering, Medicine, Research, IT
Management	Accountancy, Economics, Business Math, English, Nepali	Business, Finance, Banking, CA
Humanities	Social Studies, History, Geography, English, Nepali	Law, Journalism, Civil Service, Teaching
Education	Education, Child Dev., Pedagogy, English, Nepali	Teaching, Counseling, School Admin

PART A: COMMON SUBJECTS — All Streams

SECTION 1: MATHEMATICS

Mathematics is the highest-scoring subject in all entrance exams. It requires daily practice. Below is the complete SEE-level syllabus with all formulas.

1.1 SETS

A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects. Sets are represented using curly brackets { }.

Types: Empty set { }, Singleton set, Finite set, Infinite set, Universal set (U)
Subset: A ⊆ B means every element of A is also in B
Equal sets: A = B if they have exactly the same elements

Operation	Symbol	Meaning	Example
Union	A ∪ B	All elements in A or B or both	{1,2} ∪ {2,3} = {1,2,3}
Intersection	A ∩ B	Elements common to both A and B	{1,2} ∩ {2,3} = {2}
Complement	A'	Elements NOT in A (in Universal set)	U={1,2,3}, A={1} → A'={2,3}
Difference	A - B	Elements in A but NOT in B	{1,2,3}-{2,3}={1}

n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∩ B)

n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A)+n(B)+n(C) - n(A∩B) - n(B∩C) - n(A∩C) + n(A∩B∩C)

📌 Always draw a Venn diagram first before solving set problems.

1.2 REAL NUMBERS & SURDS

Type	Description	Examples
Natural (N)	Counting numbers	1, 2, 3, 4 ...
Whole (W)	Natural + zero	0, 1, 2, 3 ...
Integer (Z)	Positive + negative + zero	...-2,-1, 0, 1, 2...
Rational (Q)	Can be written as p/q	1/2, 0.75, -3, 5
Irrational	Cannot be written as p/q	√2, √3, π, e
Real (R)	All rational + irrational	All numbers on number line

Surds — Square roots that cannot be simplified to whole numbers:

√a × √b = √(ab)

√a ÷ √b = √(a/b)

(√a + √b)(√a - √b) = a - b ← Rationalizing the denominator

(a + b)² = a² + 2ab + b²

(a - b)² = a² - 2ab + b²

(a + b)(a - b) = a² - b² ← Difference of squares

1.3 INDICES (Laws of Exponents)

Law	Formula	Example
Product	aᵐ × aⁿ = aᵐ⁺ⁿ	2³ × 2⁴ = 2⁷ = 128
Quotient	aᵐ ÷ aⁿ = aᵐ⁻ⁿ	3⁵ ÷ 3² = 3³ = 27
Power of Power	(aᵐ)ⁿ = aᵐⁿ	(2²)³ = 2⁶ = 64
Power of Product	(ab)ⁿ = aⁿbⁿ	(2×3)² = 4×9 = 36
Zero Index	a⁰ = 1	100⁰ = 1
Negative Index	a⁻ⁿ = 1/aⁿ	2⁻³ = 1/8
Fractional Index	a^(1/n) = ⁿ√a	8^(1/3) = ∛8 = 2
Fractional Index 2	a^(m/n) = ⁿ√(aᵐ)	8^(2/3) = (∛8)² = 4

1.4 LOGARITHM

Definition: If aˣ = b, then logₐb = x (read: log base a of b equals x)

log(mn) = log m + log n ← Product Rule

log(m/n) = log m - log n ← Quotient Rule

log(mⁿ) = n × log m ← Power Rule

logₐa = 1 ← Log of same base = 1

logₐ1 = 0 ← Log of 1 is always 0

Change of base: logₐb = log b / log a

log₁₀ = common log | logₑ = ln = natural log

📌 log without a base means log₁₀ (base 10).

1.5 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

Standard Form: ax² + bx + c = 0 where a ≠ 0

Method 1 — Factorization: Express as (x + p)(x + q) = 0
Method 2 — Quadratic Formula (works always):

x = [ -b ± √(b² - 4ac) ] / 2a

Discriminant D = b² - 4ac:

D > 0 → Two distinct real roots
D = 0 → Two equal real roots (repeated)
D < 0 → No real roots

Sum and Product of roots (α and β):

α + β = -b/a ← Sum of roots

α × β = c/a ← Product of roots

Equation from roots: x² - (α+β)x + αβ = 0

1.6 SEQUENCE & SERIES

Arithmetic Progression (AP)

A sequence with a constant difference 'd' between consecutive terms.

General Term: Tₙ = a + (n-1)d

Sum of n terms: Sₙ = n/2 × [2a + (n-1)d]

Sₙ = n/2 × (a + l) where l = last term

Common difference: d = T₂ - T₁ = T₃ - T₂

Geometric Progression (GP)

A sequence with a constant ratio 'r' between consecutive terms.

General Term: Tₙ = a × r^(n-1)

Sum of n terms: Sₙ = a(rⁿ - 1)/(r - 1) when r ≠ 1

Sum of infinite GP: S∞ = a/(1-r) when |r| < 1

Common ratio: r = T₂/T₁ = T₃/T₂

1.7 MATRICES

A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers arranged in rows and columns.

Order = m × n (m rows, n columns)
Square matrix: rows = columns
Identity matrix (I): diagonal = 1, rest = 0

For 2×2 matrix A = [a b]

[c d]

Determinant |A| = ad - bc

Transpose Aᵀ: swap rows and columns

Inverse A⁻¹ = (1/|A|) × [ d -b]

[-c a]

A × A⁻¹ = I (identity matrix)

📌 Matrix multiplication: (m×n) × (n×p) = (m×p). Columns of 1st must equal rows of 2nd.

1.8 GEOMETRY

Triangles

Property/Formula	Expression	Notes
Area	(1/2) × base × height	Height must be perpendicular
Heron's Formula	√[s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)]	s = (a+b+c)/2 semi-perimeter
Perimeter	a + b + c	Sum of all three sides
Pythagoras	c² = a² + b²	c = hypotenuse (longest side)
Angle sum	∠A + ∠B + ∠C = 180°	Always true for any triangle
Exterior angle	= sum of two non-adjacent interior angles	-

Similarity & Congruency

Congruent triangles (≅): Same shape AND same size — SSS, SAS, ASA, AAS, RHS
Similar triangles (~): Same shape, different size — AA, SAS, SSS

For similar triangles: corresponding sides are proportional

Area ratio = (side ratio)²

Circle Theorems

Theorem	Statement
Angle at centre	Angle at centre = 2 × angle at circumference on same arc
Angle in semicircle	Angle in a semicircle = 90°
Angles in same segment	Angles in same segment are equal
Opposite angles (cyclic quad)	Opposite angles of cyclic quadrilateral add to 180°
Tangent-radius	Tangent is perpendicular to radius at point of contact
Tangent lengths	Two tangents from external point are equal

Circle Formulas

Area = πr²

Circumference = 2πr

Arc length = (θ/360°) × 2πr

Area of sector = (θ/360°) × πr²

Area of segment = Area of sector - Area of triangle

1.9 TRIGONOMETRY

In a right-angled triangle with angle θ, hypotenuse H, perpendicular P, base B:

sin θ = P/H cos θ = B/H tan θ = P/B

cosec θ = H/P sec θ = H/B cot θ = B/P

tan θ = sin θ / cos θ

Angle →	0°	30°	45°	60°	90°
sin	0	1/2	1/√2	√3/2	1
cos	1	√3/2	1/√2	1/2	0
tan	0	1/√3	1	√3	∞

Pythagorean Identities:

sin²θ + cos²θ = 1

1 + tan²θ = sec²θ

1 + cot²θ = cosec²θ

Compound Angle Formulas:

sin(A±B) = sinA cosB ± cosA sinB

cos(A±B) = cosA cosB ∓ sinA sinB

tan(A+B) = (tanA + tanB) / (1 - tanA tanB)

Heights & Distances

tan(angle of elevation) = Height / Horizontal Distance

tan(angle of depression) = Height / Horizontal Distance

📌 Angle of elevation = looking UP from horizontal. Angle of depression = looking DOWN.

1.10 MENSURATION

3D Shape	Volume	Total Surface Area	Curved/Lateral SA
Cube (a)	a³	6a²	4a²
Cuboid (l,b,h)	l×b×h	2(lb+bh+hl)	2h(l+b)
Cylinder (r,h)	πr²h	2πr(r+h)	2πrh
Cone (r,h)	(1/3)πr²h	πr(r+l)	πrl where l=√(r²+h²)
Sphere (r)	(4/3)πr³	4πr²	4πr²
Hemisphere (r)	(2/3)πr³	3πr²	2πr²
Prism	Base Area × height	2×Base + Lateral SA	Perimeter of base × height
Pyramid	(1/3)×Base Area×h	Base + (1/2)×perimeter×slant h	-

1.11 COORDINATE GEOMETRY

Distance: d = √[(x₂-x₁)² + (y₂-y₁)²]

Midpoint: M = ((x₁+x₂)/2 , (y₁+y₂)/2)

Slope: m = (y₂-y₁)/(x₂-x₁)

Slope-intercept form: y = mx + c

Point-slope form: y - y₁ = m(x - x₁)

Two-point form: (y-y₁)/(y₂-y₁) = (x-x₁)/(x₂-x₁)

Parallel lines: m₁ = m₂

Perpendicular lines: m₁ × m₂ = -1

Section formula (internal): P = ((mx₂+nx₁)/(m+n) , (my₂+ny₁)/(m+n))

1.12 STATISTICS & PROBABILITY

Central Tendency

Mean (x̄) = Σx / n (sum of values ÷ count)

Median = middle value after arranging in order

= (n+1)/2 th value (odd n)

= average of n/2 and (n/2+1) th values (even n)

Mode = most frequently occurring value

Measures of Dispersion

Range = Maximum - Minimum

Q₁ = (n+1)/4 th value (Lower Quartile)

Q₂ = Median (Middle Quartile)

Q₃ = 3(n+1)/4 th value (Upper Quartile)

IQR = Q₃ - Q₁

Quartile Deviation (QD) = (Q₃ - Q₁) / 2

Mean Deviation (MD) = Σ|x - x̄| / n

Standard Deviation (σ) = √[ Σ(x-x̄)² / n ]

Variance = σ²

Probability

P(Event) = Favorable outcomes / Total possible outcomes

0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1

P(A') = 1 - P(A) ← Complementary

P(A∪B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A∩B) ← Addition Rule

P(A∩B) = P(A) × P(B) ← Multiplication (independent events)

📌 Mutually exclusive events: P(A∩B) = 0, so P(A∪B) = P(A) + P(B)

SECTION 2: ENGLISH

2.1 TENSES — All 12 Forms

Tense	Structure	Signal Words	Example
Simple Present	S + V1(s/es)	always, often, every day	She reads every day.
Present Continuous	S + is/am/are + V-ing	now, at the moment	She is reading now.
Present Perfect	S + has/have + V3	just, already, yet, ever	She has read the book.
Present Perfect Cont.	S + has/have been + V-ing	since, for (up to now)	She has been reading.
Simple Past	S + V2	yesterday, ago, last	She read yesterday.
Past Continuous	S + was/were + V-ing	while, when (ongoing past)	She was reading.
Past Perfect	S + had + V3	before, after, by the time	She had read it before.
Past Perfect Cont.	S + had been + V-ing	for/since (before past)	She had been reading.
Simple Future	S + will + V1	tomorrow, next, soon	She will read tomorrow.
Future Continuous	S + will be + V-ing	at this time tomorrow	She will be reading.
Future Perfect	S + will have + V3	by tomorrow, by then	She will have read it.
Future Perfect Cont.	S + will have been + V-ing	for … by …	She will have been reading.

2.2 ACTIVE & PASSIVE VOICE

Active: Subject DOES the action. Passive: Subject RECEIVES the action.

Active: Subject + Verb + Object

Passive: Object + be-verb + Past Participle (V3) + by + Subject

Tense	Active	Passive
Simple Present	She eats rice.	Rice is eaten by her.
Simple Past	She ate rice.	Rice was eaten by her.
Simple Future	She will eat rice.	Rice will be eaten by her.
Present Continuous	She is eating rice.	Rice is being eaten by her.
Past Continuous	She was eating rice.	Rice was being eaten by her.
Present Perfect	She has eaten rice.	Rice has been eaten by her.
Past Perfect	She had eaten rice.	Rice had been eaten by her.
Modal (can)	She can eat rice.	Rice can be eaten by her.

2.3 DIRECT & INDIRECT SPEECH

Direct: uses exact words in quotes. Indirect: reports without quotes, with tense change.

Type	Direct	Indirect
Statement	'I am happy.' he said.	He said that he was happy.
Question (Yes/No)	'Are you ready?'	He asked if I was ready.
Question (Wh-)	'Where do you live?'	He asked where I lived.
Command	'Close the door!'	He told me to close the door.
Request	'Please help me.'	He requested me to help him.
Exclamation	'What a great day!'	He exclaimed that it was a great day.

Tense changes (backshift):

Direct (Present)	Indirect (Past)
am/is/are	was/were
has/have	had
will	would
can	could
may	might
shall	should
do/does	did
Simple Past	Past Perfect

2.4 CONDITIONALS

Type	Condition	Structure	Example
Zero	Always true / facts	If + Present, Present	If you heat ice, it melts.
First	Possible/likely	If + Present, will + V1	If it rains, I will stay home.
Second	Unlikely/hypothetical	If + Past, would + V1	If I were rich, I would travel.
Third	Impossible (past)	If + Past Perfect, would have + V3	If I had studied, I would have passed.

2.5 ARTICLES, PREPOSITIONS & MODALS

Articles

'a' — before consonant sounds: a book, a university
'an' — before vowel sounds: an apple, an hour, an MBA
'the' — specific, unique or already mentioned things: the sun, the book I gave you
No article — plural general nouns, uncountable nouns: Books are useful. Water is life.

Common Prepositions

Preposition	Usage	Examples
in	inside, months, years, cities	in the box, in January, in Nepal
on	surfaces, days, dates	on the table, on Monday, on 5 July
at	specific time/place	at 6 PM, at school, at the corner
since	from a point in time	since 2020, since Monday
for	duration of time	for 2 hours, for 3 years
by	deadline, agent in passive	by 5 PM, written by Ram
between	two things/people	between me and you
among	more than two	among friends

Modal Verbs

Modal	Use	Example
can	ability (present)	She can swim.
could	ability (past) / polite request	He could swim. / Could you help?
may	possibility / permission (formal)	It may rain. / May I come in?
might	less likely possibility	He might come later.
must	strong obligation / certainty	You must study. / He must be tired.
should	advice / moral duty	You should eat well.
would	polite request / past habit	Would you help? / He would walk daily.
shall	future (I/we) / suggestion	I shall return. / Shall we go?
need	necessity	You need not come.
dare	challenge / courage	How dare you say that?

2.6 WRITING SKILLS

Essay Writing — Structure

Introduction (1 paragraph): Background, thesis statement, what you will discuss
Body (2–3 paragraphs): Main points, each with supporting examples and explanations
Conclusion (1 paragraph): Summary, restate thesis, final thought

📌 Use linking words: However, Furthermore, In addition, On the other hand, Therefore, In conclusion

Formal Letter — Structure

Sender's address (top right)
Date
Receiver's address (left)
Subject line: Re: ...
Salutation: Dear Sir/Madam,
Body: Introduction → Main content → Request/action
Complimentary close: Yours faithfully / Yours sincerely
Signature and name

SECTION 3: NEPALI (नेपाली)

3.1 व्याकरण (Grammar)

संधि (Sandhi) — Joining of sounds

स्वर संधि: When two vowels join — अ + अ = आ (e.g. हिम + आलय = हिमालय)
व्यञ्जन संधि: When consonants join
विसर्ग संधि: When visarga (ः) joins with next letter

समास (Samas) — Compound words

Type	Description	Example
तत्पुरुष	Second word is main	राजपुत्र (राजाको पुत्र)
द्वन्द्व	Both words equal importance	माता-पिता, नदी-नाला
बहुब्रीहि	Describes something else	चतुर्भुज (चार भुजा भएको = विष्णु)
कर्मधारय	Adjective + Noun	नीलकमल (नीलो कमल)
द्विगु	Number + Noun	त्रिभुवन (तीन भुवन)
अव्ययीभाव	First word is indeclinable	यथाशक्ति, प्रतिदिन

कारक (Karak) — Cases

कारक	विभक्ति	English
कर्ता	ले, न, ०	Subject/Nominative
कर्म	लाई, ०	Object/Accusative
करण	ले, द्वारा, बाट	Instrument
सम्प्रदान	लाई, को लागि	Dative/For
अपादान	बाट, देखि	Ablative/From
सम्बन्ध	को, का, की, रा	Genitive/Of
अधिकरण	मा, भित्र, माथि	Locative/In
सम्बोधन	हे, ओ, ए	Vocative

वाक्यभेद (Types of Sentences)

सरल वाक्य (Simple): एउटा subject, एउटा verb — 'राम स्कूल गयो।'
संयुक्त वाक्य (Compound): दुई independent clauses joined by र, तर, किनभने
मिश्र वाक्य (Complex): One main + one dependent clause

निबन्ध लेखन (Essay Writing)

भूमिका (Introduction): विषयको परिचय
मुख्य भाग (Body): मुख्य विचारहरू, उदाहरण
उपसंहार (Conclusion): सारांश र निचोड

पत्र लेखन (Letter Writing)

औपचारिक पत्र (Formal): मिति, विषय, सम्मानपूर्वक/महोदय, विषयवस्तु, भवदीय
अनौपचारिक पत्र (Informal): मिति, प्रिय, विषय, इति/तिम्रो

SECTION 4: SOCIAL STUDIES

4.1 GEOGRAPHY OF NEPAL

Feature	Details
Total Area	147,181 sq. km (landlocked country)
Location	Between India (S, E, W) and China/Tibet (N)
Coordinates	26°22'N – 30°27'N latitude, 80°4'E – 88°12'E longitude
Geographical Regions	Mountain/Himal, Hill/Pahad, Terai
Highest Peak	Mt. Everest — 8,848.86 m (world's highest)
Major Rivers	Koshi, Gandaki, Karnali (three river systems)
Provinces	7 Provinces
Districts	77 Districts
Capital	Kathmandu (political + cultural + economic)
Population	~30 million (approx.)
Official Language	Nepali
Currency	Nepali Rupee (NPR)

Three Geographical Regions

Region	Altitude	Area %	Features
Himal (Mountain)	Above 4,877m	15%	Himalayas, snow, glaciers, sparse population
Pahad (Hill)	610–4,877m	68%	Hills, valleys, terraced farming, most populated
Terai (Plains)	Below 610m	17%	Flat land, fertile soil, hot, rice cultivation

4.2 HISTORY OF NEPAL

Year / Period	Event
563 BC	Birth of Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) in Lumbini
1200–1768 AD	Malla Dynasty rules Kathmandu Valley
1768 AD	Prithvi Narayan Shah unifies Nepal, Gorkha Kingdom expands
1814–1816 AD	Anglo-Nepal War → Sugauli Treaty signed with British India
1846 AD	Kot Massacre — Jung Bahadur Rana seizes power, Rana oligarchy begins
1923 AD	Nepal's independence recognized by Britain
1951 AD	End of Rana regime, democracy restored — King Tribhuvan
1955 AD	Nepal joins United Nations
1960 AD	King Mahendra introduces Panchayat system, bans political parties
1990 AD	People's Movement I — Multi-party democracy restored
1996–2006	Maoist insurgency (People's War)
2006 AD	People's Movement II (Jan Andolan II) — end of monarchy's political role
2008 AD	Nepal declared Federal Democratic Republic, monarchy abolished
2015 AD	New Constitution of Nepal promulgated (Sept 20, 2015)
2015 AD	Devastating earthquake (April 25) — 7.8 magnitude

4.3 CIVICS — GOVERNMENT OF NEPAL

System: Federal Democratic Republic with 3 levels of government

Level	Body	Members / Structure
Federal	Parliament (Sansad)	House of Representatives (275) + National Assembly (59)
Federal Executive	President + Prime Minister + Council of Ministers	President = ceremonial head, PM = executive head
Federal Judiciary	Supreme Court	Chief Justice + other justices
Provincial	Provincial Assembly	Each province has its own assembly and government
Local	Municipality/Rural Municipality	Ward level governance

Fundamental Rights (Constitution 2015)

Right to equality — no discrimination based on gender, caste, religion
Right to freedom — speech, press, assembly, movement
Right to education — free basic education for all
Right to health — free basic healthcare
Right to property — own and use property
Right to constitutional remedy — can approach court if rights violated
Right against exploitation — no forced labor or trafficking

4.4 GLOBAL ORGANIZATIONS

Organization	Full Name	HQ	Founded	Key Role
UN	United Nations	New York, USA	1945	International peace and security
WHO	World Health Organization	Geneva, Switzerland	1948	Global health standards
UNESCO	UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Org.	Paris, France	1945	Education, science, culture
UNICEF	UN Children's Fund	New York, USA	1946	Child welfare worldwide
SAARC	South Asian Assoc. for Regional Cooperation	Kathmandu, Nepal	1985	Regional cooperation in South Asia
WTO	World Trade Organization	Geneva, Switzerland	1995	International trade rules
IMF	International Monetary Fund	Washington DC, USA	1944	Financial stability globally
World Bank	International Bank for Reconstruction and Dev.	Washington DC, USA	1944	Development loans
NATO	North Atlantic Treaty Organization	Brussels, Belgium	1949	Military alliance
ASEAN	Association of Southeast Asian Nations	Jakarta, Indonesia	1967	SE Asian cooperation

PART B: SCIENCE STREAM

Subjects: Physics, Chemistry, Biology OR Mathematics, English, Nepali

SECTION 5: PHYSICS

5.1 MEASUREMENT & UNITS

Physical Quantity	SI Unit	Symbol	Measuring Instrument
Length	Metre	m	Ruler, Vernier caliper
Mass	Kilogram	kg	Balance
Time	Second	s	Stopwatch, clock
Temperature	Kelvin	K	Thermometer
Electric Current	Ampere	A	Ammeter
Force	Newton	N	Spring balance
Energy / Work	Joule	J	-
Power	Watt	W	Wattmeter
Pressure	Pascal	Pa	Manometer, barometer
Frequency	Hertz	Hz	-

1 km = 1000 m | 1 m = 100 cm = 1000 mm

1 kg = 1000 g | 1 hour = 3600 seconds

5.2 MOTION

Key terms:

Distance: total path length (scalar)
Displacement: shortest path from start to end (vector)
Speed: distance / time (scalar)
Velocity: displacement / time (vector)
Acceleration: change in velocity / time

Three Equations of Motion (uniform acceleration):

v = u + at ← velocity after time t

s = ut + (1/2)at² ← displacement in time t

v² = u² + 2as ← relates velocity and displacement

s = (u+v)/2 × t ← average velocity × time

u=initial velocity, v=final velocity, a=acceleration, s=displacement, t=time

Average speed = Total distance / Total time

Average velocity = Total displacement / Total time

Acceleration = (v - u) / t

📌 For free fall: a = g = 9.8 m/s² ≈ 10 m/s² (downward)

5.3 NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION

1st Law (Law of Inertia): An object stays at rest or moves at constant velocity unless acted upon by a net external force.
2nd Law: The net force on an object equals its mass times acceleration.

F = ma (Force = mass × acceleration)

Weight: W = mg (g = 9.8 m/s²)

3rd Law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Momentum: p = mv

Impulse: J = F×t = Δp = m(v-u)

Law of Conservation of Momentum: m₁u₁ + m₂u₂ = m₁v₁ + m₂v₂

📌 Momentum is always conserved in all collisions (no external force).

5.4 WORK, POWER & ENERGY

Work = F × d × cosθ (θ = angle between force and displacement)

Work = 0 when θ = 90° (force perpendicular to displacement)

Kinetic Energy (KE) = (1/2)mv²

Potential Energy (PE) = mgh

Elastic PE (spring) = (1/2)kx²

Work-Energy Theorem: Net work = ΔKE = KE_final - KE_initial

Conservation of Energy: KE + PE = constant (no friction)

Power = Work / Time = W/t

Power = Force × velocity = F×v

Efficiency (%) = (Useful output / Total input) × 100

📌 1 Watt = 1 Joule per second. 1 horsepower (HP) = 746 W

5.5 PRESSURE

Pressure = Force / Area = F/A [Unit: Pascal = N/m²]

Liquid Pressure = ρgh (ρ=density, g=9.8m/s², h=depth)

Atmospheric Pressure = 101325 Pa = 1 atm = 760 mmHg = 76 cm Hg

Archimedes Principle: Buoyant Force = Weight of liquid displaced

Buoyant Force = ρ_liquid × V_submerged × g

Object floats if: density of object < density of fluid
Object sinks if: density of object > density of fluid

Pascal's Law: Pressure applied to enclosed fluid is transmitted equally in all directions

5.6 HEAT & TEMPERATURE

Q = mcΔT (Q=heat, m=mass, c=specific heat, ΔT=temperature change)

°C to K: K = °C + 273

°C to °F: °F = (9/5 × °C) + 32

°F to °C: °C = 5/9 × (°F - 32)

Latent Heat: Q = mL (no temperature change during state change)

Linear Expansion: ΔL = L₀αΔT (α = coefficient of linear expansion)

Substance	Specific Heat (J/kg°C)
Water	4200
Ice	2100
Copper	385
Iron	460
Air	1000

📌 Water has the highest specific heat — it heats and cools very slowly.

5.7 LIGHT — REFLECTION & REFRACTION

Reflection

Law 1: Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection (∠i = ∠r)
Law 2: Incident ray, reflected ray and normal are all in the same plane.

Mirror formula: 1/f = 1/v + 1/u

Magnification: m = -v/u = h_i / h_o

Focal length of spherical mirror: f = R/2

Mirror Type	Focal Length	Image Nature	Uses
Concave (converging)	Positive (real focus)	Real & inverted OR virtual & erect	Torch, telescope, shaving mirror
Convex (diverging)	Negative (virtual focus)	Always virtual, erect, diminished	Car rear-view mirror, security mirror
Plane	-	Virtual, erect, same size, laterally inverted	Dressing mirrors

Refraction

Snell's Law: n₁ sinθ₁ = n₂ sinθ₂

Refractive Index (n) = c / v = sin(i) / sin(r)

n = Speed of light in vacuum / Speed of light in medium

Lens Formula: 1/f = 1/v - 1/u

Magnification (lens): m = v/u

Power of lens: P = 1/f (f in metres) [Unit: Dioptre D]

📌 Convex lens: converging, positive focal length. Concave lens: diverging, negative focal length.

5.8 ELECTRICITY

Ohm's Law: V = IR (V=voltage, I=current, R=resistance)

Resistance: R = ρL/A (ρ=resistivity, L=length, A=cross-section area)

Series: R_total = R₁ + R₂ + R₃ ...

Current same everywhere: I = I₁ = I₂

Voltage divides: V = V₁ + V₂

Parallel: 1/R_total = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + 1/R₃

Voltage same: V = V₁ = V₂

Current divides: I = I₁ + I₂

Power: P = VI = I²R = V²/R [Unit: Watt W]

Energy: E = Pt = VIt = I²Rt [Unit: Joule J]

1 kWh = 1 unit = 3.6 × 10⁶ J

Cost = Energy (kWh) × Rate per unit

5.9 MAGNETISM & ELECTROMAGNETISM

Like poles repel; unlike poles attract.
Magnetic field lines: from North to South outside magnet.
Right-hand thumb rule: thumb = current direction, fingers = magnetic field direction

Faraday's Law: EMF = -N × (ΔΦ/Δt) (N=turns, Φ=flux)

Fleming's Left-Hand Rule: Force on conductor in magnetic field

Fleming's Right-Hand Rule: Direction of induced current

SECTION 6: CHEMISTRY

6.1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Particle	Symbol	Charge	Location	Mass (amu)
Proton	p⁺	+1	Nucleus	1
Neutron	n⁰	0	Nucleus	1
Electron	e⁻	-1	Shells (orbits)	1/1836 ≈ 0

Atomic Number (Z) = Number of protons = Number of electrons (neutral)

Mass Number (A) = Protons + Neutrons

Neutrons = A - Z

Electron configuration: 2, 8, 8, 18 ... (shell capacity)

Valence electrons = electrons in outermost shell

Isotopes: same atomic number, different mass number (e.g. ¹²C and ¹⁴C)
Isobars: same mass number, different atomic number
Isotones: same number of neutrons, different atomic number

6.2 PERIODIC TABLE

Group	Name	Valency	Examples	Properties
Group 1 (IA)	Alkali Metals	1	Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs	Highly reactive, soft, low density
Group 2 (IIA)	Alkaline Earth Metals	2	Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba	Less reactive than Group 1
Groups 3–12	Transition Metals	Variable	Fe, Cu, Zn, Ni, Cr	Hard, high melting point
Group 17 (VIIA)	Halogens	-1	F, Cl, Br, I, At	Very reactive non-metals
Group 18 (0)	Noble Gases	0	He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe	Inert, very unreactive

Periodic Trends (across a period, left to right):

Atomic number increases
Atomic size decreases
Electronegativity increases
Ionization energy increases
Metallic character decreases

6.3 CHEMICAL BONDING

Bond Type	Formed Between	Mechanism	Properties	Examples
Ionic Bond	Metal + Non-metal	Transfer of electrons	Hard, high melting point, conducts in solution	NaCl, KCl, MgO
Covalent Bond	Non-metal + Non-metal	Sharing of electrons	Low melting point, poor conductor	H₂O, CO₂, CH₄
Metallic Bond	Metal + Metal	Sea of free electrons	Conducts electricity, malleable, shiny	Fe, Cu, Al
Hydrogen Bond	H + (F, O, N)	Weak electrostatic attraction	Responsible for water's high BP	H₂O, HF

6.4 ACIDS, BASES & SALTS

Property	Acid	Base / Alkali
Taste	Sour	Bitter
pH range	0 – 6.9	7.1 – 14
Litmus test	Turns BLUE litmus RED	Turns RED litmus BLUE
Phenolphthalein	Remains colourless	Turns pink/magenta
Reaction	With metals → H₂ gas; with bases → salt + water	With acids → salt + water
Examples	HCl, H₂SO₄, HNO₃, CH₃COOH	NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)₂, NH₄OH

pH = -log[H⁺]

Neutral: pH = 7 | Acid: pH < 7 | Base: pH > 7

Neutralization: Acid + Base → Salt + Water

HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O

H₂SO₄ + 2NaOH → Na₂SO₄ + 2H₂O

6.5 CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Type	General Form	Example
Combination	A + B → AB	2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O
Decomposition	AB → A + B	2H₂O → 2H₂ + O₂
Single Displacement	A + BC → AC + B	Fe + CuSO₄ → FeSO₄ + Cu
Double Displacement	AB + CD → AD + CB	NaCl + AgNO₃ → AgCl + NaNO₃
Combustion	Fuel + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O + Energy	CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O
Redox	Oxidation + Reduction occur together	2Fe + O₂ → 2FeO
Precipitation	Two solutions → insoluble product	BaCl₂ + H₂SO₄ → BaSO₄↓ + 2HCl

📌 Balancing: number of atoms of each element must be equal on BOTH sides.

6.6 METALS, NON-METALS & CARBON

Property	Metals	Non-Metals
State (room temp)	Mostly solid (except Mercury)	Solid, liquid or gas
Lustre	Shiny	Dull (except iodine)
Conductivity	Good (electricity & heat)	Poor (except graphite)
Malleability	Malleable & ductile	Brittle
Reaction with O₂	Metal oxides (basic)	Non-metal oxides (acidic)
Reaction with acid	Produce H₂ gas	Usually no reaction

Carbon & Its Compounds:

Allotropes of Carbon: Diamond (hardest), Graphite (conducts), Fullerene (C₆₀)

Alkanes (CₙH₂ₙ₊₂): CH₄ methane, C₂H₆ ethane, C₃H₈ propane [single bond]

Alkenes (CₙH₂ₙ): C₂H₄ ethene, C₃H₆ propene [double bond]

Alkynes (CₙH₂ₙ₋₂): C₂H₂ ethyne [triple bond]

SECTION 7: BIOLOGY

7.1 CELL — BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

Organelle	Present In	Function
Cell Membrane	All cells	Controls what enters and exits; selectively permeable
Cell Wall	Plant cells only	Rigid support; made of cellulose
Nucleus	Eukaryotic cells	Control centre; contains DNA and chromosomes
Mitochondria	All eukaryotic cells	Energy production (ATP) — 'Powerhouse of cell'
Chloroplast	Plant cells only	Photosynthesis — contains chlorophyll
Ribosome	All cells	Protein synthesis
Endoplasmic Reticulum	Eukaryotic cells	Transport network (rough ER has ribosomes)
Golgi Apparatus	Eukaryotic cells	Packages and secretes proteins
Lysosome	Animal cells mainly	Digestion — contains digestive enzymes
Vacuole	All cells	Storage (large central vacuole in plant cells)
Centriole	Animal cells	Cell division (forms spindle fibres)

7.2 CELL DIVISION

Mitosis — For Growth & Repair

Result: 1 cell → 2 identical daughter cells (same chromosome number)
Human cells: 46 chromosomes → 46 chromosomes each
Phases: Interphase → Prophase → Metaphase → Anaphase → Telophase → Cytokinesis

Meiosis — For Sexual Reproduction

Result: 1 cell → 4 genetically different cells with HALF chromosome number
Human cells: 46 chromosomes → 23 chromosomes in each gamete (sperm/egg)
Occurs in: testes (sperm) and ovaries (eggs)
Phases: Meiosis I (reduces chromosome number) + Meiosis II (like mitosis)

Fertilization: 23 (sperm) + 23 (egg) = 46 chromosomes in zygote

7.3 HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS

Digestive System

Pathway: Mouth → Oesophagus → Stomach → Small Intestine → Large Intestine → Rectum → Anus

Organ	Secretion / Process	Function
Mouth	Saliva (salivary amylase)	Mechanical chewing + starch digestion begins
Oesophagus	Peristalsis	Moves food to stomach by wave-like contractions
Stomach	HCl + Pepsin	Kills bacteria, protein digestion begins
Small Intestine	Bile (liver), Pancreatic juice	Final digestion + absorption of nutrients
Large Intestine	Absorption of water	Absorbs water, forms feces
Liver	Bile	Emulsifies fats, detoxification
Pancreas	Amylase, lipase, protease	Digests carbs, fats, proteins

Respiratory System

Pathway: Nose → Pharynx → Larynx → Trachea → Bronchi → Bronchioles → Alveoli

Gas exchange in alveoli: O₂ → blood, CO₂ ← blood

Inhalation: diaphragm contracts (flattens), chest volume increases, air enters

Exhalation: diaphragm relaxes (domes), chest volume decreases, air leaves

Breathing rate: ~12-20 breaths per minute (normal adult)

Circulatory System

Heart: 4 chambers — Right Atrium, Right Ventricle, Left Atrium, Left Ventricle
Pulmonary circulation: Right side of heart → Lungs → Left side (to get oxygen)
Systemic circulation: Left side → Body → Right side (distributes oxygen)

Blood pressure: 120/80 mmHg (systolic/diastolic) — normal

Blood Component	Function
Red Blood Cells (RBC)	Carry O₂ using haemoglobin; no nucleus; biconcave shape
White Blood Cells (WBC)	Immunity — fight bacteria and viruses
Platelets (Thrombocytes)	Blood clotting at wound sites
Plasma	Liquid part (90% water); carries nutrients, hormones, CO₂

Nervous System

Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain + Spinal Cord
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): All nerves outside CNS
Neuron parts: Dendrites (receive) → Cell Body → Axon → Synapse (send)

Reflex Arc: Receptor → Sensory neuron → Spinal cord → Motor neuron → Effector

Brain Part	Function
Cerebrum	Thinking, memory, voluntary movement, senses
Cerebellum	Balance and coordination
Medulla Oblongata	Controls breathing, heartbeat, blood pressure (involuntary)
Hypothalamus	Controls body temperature, hunger, thirst, emotions
Thalamus	Relay station for sensory signals

7.4 PHOTOSYNTHESIS & RESPIRATION

Photosynthesis:

6CO₂ + 6H₂O + Light Energy → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂

Occurs in chloroplasts, using chlorophyll
Light reactions: in grana (thylakoids) — produce ATP and NADPH
Dark reactions (Calvin cycle): in stroma — produce glucose

Aerobic Respiration:

C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + 38 ATP (Energy)

Anaerobic Respiration (muscles during heavy exercise):

C₆H₁₂O₆ → 2C₃H₆O₃ (Lactic acid) + Energy

Fermentation (yeast):

C₆H₁₂O₆ → 2C₂H₅OH (Ethanol) + 2CO₂ + Energy

7.5 GENETICS

DNA: Double helix structure; made of nucleotides (A-T, G-C base pairs)
Gene: A specific segment of DNA that codes for a protein/trait
Chromosome: Condensed DNA; humans have 46 (23 pairs)
Allele: Different forms of a gene (dominant A, recessive a)

Dominant allele (A): Expressed even when only one copy is present (AA or Aa)

Recessive allele (a): Only expressed when TWO copies present (aa)

Mendel's Laws:

Law of Segregation: Each organism has 2 alleles for each trait; they separate during gamete formation
Law of Independent Assortment: Genes for different traits are inherited independently

Cross	Genotype Ratio	Phenotype Ratio
Aa × Aa	1 AA : 2 Aa : 1 aa	3 Dominant : 1 Recessive
AA × aa	All Aa	All Dominant
Aa × aa	1 Aa : 1 aa	1 Dominant : 1 Recessive

PART C: MANAGEMENT STREAM

Subjects: Accountancy, Economics, Business Mathematics, English, Nepali

SECTION 8: ACCOUNTANCY

8.1 BASIC CONCEPTS

Accounting: Recording, classifying, summarizing and interpreting financial transactions.
Bookkeeping: Recording day-to-day financial transactions in books.

Term	Meaning
Assets	What the business OWNS (cash, land, building, equipment)
Liabilities	What the business OWES (loans, creditors, bank overdraft)
Capital	Owner's investment in the business
Revenue / Income	Money earned from business activities
Expenses	Money spent to run the business
Profit	Revenue - Expenses (positive = profit)
Loss	Expenses > Revenue (negative result)
Debtor	Someone who OWES money to the business
Creditor	Someone to whom the business OWES money

Accounting Equation: Assets = Liabilities + Capital

Capital = Assets - Liabilities

Profit = Revenue - Expenses

8.2 DOUBLE ENTRY SYSTEM

Every transaction has TWO effects — a debit and a credit.
Total debits must always equal total credits.

Account Type	Debit (Dr)	Credit (Cr)
Assets	Increase (+)	Decrease (-)
Liabilities	Decrease (-)	Increase (+)
Capital	Decrease (-)	Increase (+)
Revenue / Income	Decrease (-)	Increase (+)
Expenses	Increase (+)	Decrease (-)

📌 Golden Rule: Debit what comes in / Debit the receiver. Credit what goes out / Credit the giver.

8.3 JOURNAL ENTRIES

Journal = Book of original entry. Each transaction is recorded here first.

Format: Date | Account Dr/Cr | Debit Amount | Credit Amount | Narration

Common Journal Entries:

Transaction	Debit	Credit
Started business with cash	Cash A/c	Capital A/c
Purchased goods for cash	Purchases A/c	Cash A/c
Purchased goods on credit	Purchases A/c	Creditor A/c
Sold goods for cash	Cash A/c	Sales A/c
Sold goods on credit	Debtor A/c	Sales A/c
Paid rent	Rent A/c	Cash A/c
Received cash from debtor	Cash A/c	Debtor A/c
Paid creditor	Creditor A/c	Cash A/c
Withdrew cash for personal use	Drawings A/c	Cash A/c
Depreciation charged	Depreciation A/c	Asset A/c

8.4 LEDGER & TRIAL BALANCE

Ledger: Book where each account is maintained separately (T-account format)
Balancing: Difference between total debits and credits of an account
Trial Balance: List of all ledger account balances to check arithmetic accuracy

If Trial Balance agrees: Total Debits = Total Credits

📌 Trial balance matching does NOT mean accounts are error-free (errors of principle/omission still exist).

8.5 FINAL ACCOUNTS

Trading Account

Gross Profit = Net Sales - Cost of Goods Sold

Cost of Goods Sold = Opening Stock + Purchases - Closing Stock

Profit & Loss Account

Net Profit = Gross Profit + Other Income - All Expenses

Balance Sheet

Balance sheet is a statement of Assets and Liabilities on a particular date.

Total Assets = Total Liabilities + Capital

Liabilities Side	Assets Side
Capital	Fixed Assets (Land, Building, Machinery)
Long-term Loans	Current Assets (Cash, Debtors, Stock)
Current Liabilities (Creditors)	Prepaid Expenses
Outstanding Expenses	Accrued Income

8.6 DEPRECIATION

Depreciation: Reduction in value of fixed assets over time due to wear and tear.

Straight Line Method: Depreciation = (Cost - Scrap Value) / Useful Life

Written Down Value Method: Depreciation = Rate% × Book Value (decreasing each year)

Book Value = Cost - Accumulated Depreciation

SECTION 9: ECONOMICS

9.1 BASIC CONCEPTS

Concept	Definition
Economics	Study of how people use scarce resources to satisfy unlimited wants
Scarcity	Resources are limited but human wants are unlimited
Utility	Satisfaction obtained from consuming a good or service
Demand	Willingness AND ability to buy a good at a given price
Supply	Willingness AND ability to sell a good at a given price
Market	Any arrangement where buyers and sellers meet to exchange
Price	Amount of money paid for a good or service
Opportunity Cost	Value of the next best alternative given up when making a choice
GDP	Gross Domestic Product — total value of goods and services produced in a country in a year
GNP	GDP + income earned abroad - income paid to foreigners

9.2 DEMAND & SUPPLY

Law of Demand

As price INCREASES, quantity demanded DECREASES (inverse relationship)
Demand curve slopes DOWNWARD from left to right

Factors affecting Demand (other than price):

Income of consumers
Price of related goods (substitutes and complements)
Consumer tastes and preferences
Population size
Future price expectations

Law of Supply

As price INCREASES, quantity supplied INCREASES (direct relationship)
Supply curve slopes UPWARD from left to right

Factors affecting Supply:

Cost of production
Technology
Government taxes and subsidies
Number of producers

Equilibrium: Demand = Supply → Market clearing price

9.3 NATIONAL INCOME

GDP = C + I + G + (X - M)

C=Consumption, I=Investment, G=Government spending, X=Exports, M=Imports

GNP = GDP + Net factor income from abroad

NNP = GNP - Depreciation

National Income (NI) = NNP at factor cost

Per Capita Income = National Income / Total Population

9.4 MONEY & BANKING

Functions of Money: Medium of exchange, Store of value, Unit of account, Standard of deferred payment
Types of money: Commodity money, Paper money (currency notes), Credit money, Digital money

Central Bank (Nepal Rastra Bank — NRB): Issues currency, controls money supply, banker to government
Commercial Banks: Accept deposits, give loans, facilitate payments

Money Multiplier = 1 / Reserve Ratio

Credit Creation = Initial Deposit × Money Multiplier

9.5 NEPAL'S ECONOMY

Feature	Details
Economic system	Mixed economy (public + private sector)
Main sectors	Agriculture (largest employer), Tourism, Remittance, Hydropower
Currency	Nepali Rupee (NPR)
Fiscal year	Shrawan 1 to Ashadh end (July 16 – July 15)
Budget	Annual plan presented by government each year
Major challenges	Poverty, unemployment, trade deficit, infrastructure gap
Remittance	One of the largest sources of foreign exchange for Nepal
Hydropower	Nepal has massive potential — 83,000 MW theoretical capacity

PART D: HUMANITIES STREAM

Subjects: Social Studies / History / Geography, English, Nepali, Optional Subjects

SECTION 10: HISTORY

10.1 ANCIENT HISTORY

Period / Event	Key Points
Stone Age	Hunter-gatherers; used stone tools; no writing system yet
Bronze Age	First civilizations emerged; use of bronze tools and weapons
Indus Valley Civilization	~2600–1900 BC; advanced urban planning (Harappa, Mohenjo-daro)
Vedic Period	~1500–500 BC; Vedas written; caste system established
Gautam Buddha born	563 BC in Lumbini, Nepal; founded Buddhism
Ashoka (Maurya Empire)	269–232 BC; spread Buddhism across Asia; built pillars
Gupta Empire	~320–550 AD; golden age of India — art, math, science

10.2 MEDIEVAL HISTORY OF NEPAL

Dynasty/Period	Key Facts
Licchavi Period (400–880 AD)	First historical period of Nepal; records in Sanskrit inscriptions
Malla Period (1200–1768 AD)	Three kingdoms: Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur; art flourished
Shah Dynasty begins (1559 AD)	Dravya Shah founds Gorkha kingdom
Prithvi Narayan Shah (1744–1775)	Unifies Nepal from Gorkha; captures Kathmandu Valley in 1768
Sugauli Treaty (1816)	After Anglo-Nepal War; Nepal gives up Sikkim, parts of Terai
Rana Oligarchy (1846–1951)	Jung Bahadur Rana takes power; PMs became hereditary; king ceremonial

10.3 MODERN HISTORY

Year	Event
1951	Democracy Movement — King Tribhuvan restores democracy, ends Rana rule
1955	Nepal joins United Nations
1959	First general election held; BP Koirala becomes PM
1960	King Mahendra dissolves parliament, introduces Panchayat system
1972	King Birendra ascends throne
1990	People's Movement I — Multi-party democracy restored; new constitution
1996	CPN (Maoist) launches People's War — decade-long insurgency
2001	Royal massacre — King Birendra and family killed
2006	People's Movement II — 12-point agreement; Maoists join peace process
2007	Comprehensive Peace Agreement signed; Interim constitution
2008	Constituent Assembly elections; monarchy abolished; Federal Republic declared
2015	New Constitution promulgated (Sep 20); major earthquake (Apr 25)
2017	First elections under new constitution

SECTION 11: GEOGRAPHY

11.1 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Earth's Structure

Layer	Description
Crust	Outermost solid layer (5–70 km thick); where we live
Mantle	Semi-molten rock; 2900 km thick; convection currents cause tectonic movement
Outer Core	Liquid iron and nickel; generates Earth's magnetic field
Inner Core	Solid iron and nickel; extreme pressure; ~5000°C

Plate Tectonics

Earth's crust is divided into tectonic plates that move slowly.
Convergent boundary: plates collide → mountains formed (e.g. Himalayas from Indian + Eurasian plate)
Divergent boundary: plates move apart → rift valleys, mid-ocean ridges
Transform boundary: plates slide past each other → earthquakes (e.g. San Andreas Fault)

Rocks

Rock Type	Formation	Examples
Igneous	Cooled magma/lava	Granite, Basalt, Obsidian
Sedimentary	Compressed sediments	Limestone, Sandstone, Coal
Metamorphic	Changed by heat/pressure	Marble, Slate, Quartzite

11.2 MAPS & SCALE

Map: A flat representation of part of Earth's surface drawn to scale.

Scale = Map distance / Actual distance

Actual distance = Map distance × Scale denominator

Types: Physical map, Political map, Topographic map, Thematic map
Contour lines: Lines connecting points of equal elevation on a map
Closely spaced contours = steep slope. Widely spaced = gentle slope.

11.3 CLIMATE & WEATHER

Element	Description
Temperature	Degree of hotness/coldness. Measured in °C using thermometer.
Precipitation	Any form of water falling from sky (rain, snow, hail, sleet)
Humidity	Amount of water vapour in air. High humidity = feels muggy.
Wind	Moving air from high pressure to low pressure area
Climate	Average weather conditions over 30+ years for an area

Factors affecting climate: Latitude, Altitude, Distance from sea, Ocean currents, Vegetation

Temperature decreases by 6.5°C per 1000m rise in altitude (lapse rate)

PART E: EDUCATION STREAM

Subjects: Education Theory, Child Development, Pedagogy, English, Nepali

SECTION 12: EDUCATION

12.1 INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION

Concept	Definition
Education	Lifelong process of acquiring knowledge, skills, values and attitudes
Formal Education	Structured schooling in recognized institutions with curriculum
Informal Education	Learning from family, community, media, daily experiences
Non-formal Education	Organized education outside formal system (literacy programs, vocational training)
Pedagogy	The art and science of teaching — methods and practice of instruction
Curriculum	All planned learning experiences — subjects, activities, content
Aims of Education	Physical, mental, social, moral, vocational development of individuals

12.2 PHILOSOPHERS OF EDUCATION

Philosopher	Country	Key Contribution
Socrates	Greece (469–399 BC)	Socratic method — learning through questioning and dialogue
Plato	Greece (428–348 BC)	Education for justice; philosopher-kings; Republic
Aristotle	Greece (384–322 BC)	Education through practice and virtue; empirical observation
John Dewey	USA (1859–1952)	Progressive education — 'Learning by doing'; child-centred approach
Jean Piaget	Switzerland (1896–1980)	Cognitive development theory — 4 stages of child development
Lev Vygotsky	Russia (1896–1934)	Social learning theory; Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Paulo Freire	Brazil (1921–1997)	Critical pedagogy — education as liberation; Pedagogy of the Oppressed
Maria Montessori	Italy (1870–1952)	Child-centred method; prepared environment; self-directed learning
Rousseau	France (1712–1778)	Naturalistic education; 'Emile'; child learns through nature
Pestalozzi	Switzerland (1746–1827)	Head, Heart, Hands approach; education of the whole child

12.3 CHILD DEVELOPMENT

Piaget's Four Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage	Age	Key Characteristics
Sensorimotor	0–2 years	Learning through senses; object permanence develops
Pre-operational	2–7 years	Language development; egocentric thinking; symbolic play
Concrete Operational	7–11 years	Logical thinking about concrete objects; conservation
Formal Operational	12+ years	Abstract thinking; hypothetical reasoning; adult logic

Domains of Child Development

Physical Development: Growth of body, muscles, motor skills (gross and fine)
Cognitive Development: Thinking, memory, problem-solving, language
Social Development: Interaction with others, relationships, cooperation
Emotional Development: Understanding and managing feelings
Moral Development: Sense of right and wrong (Kohlberg's stages)

12.4 LEARNING THEORIES

Theory	Key Thinker	Main Idea
Behaviourism	Pavlov, Skinner, Watson	Learning through stimulus-response; reinforcement and punishment
Classical Conditioning	Ivan Pavlov	Neutral stimulus paired with unconditioned stimulus produces conditioned response
Operant Conditioning	B.F. Skinner	Behaviour shaped by positive/negative reinforcement and punishment
Cognitivism	Piaget, Bruner	Learning involves internal mental processes; understanding over memorization
Constructivism	Vygotsky, Dewey	Learners actively construct knowledge through experience
Humanism	Maslow, Rogers	Focus on self-actualization; learner's needs and emotions matter
Multiple Intelligences	Howard Gardner	8 types of intelligence: linguistic, logical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist

12.5 TEACHING METHODS

Method	Description	Best For
Lecture Method	Teacher explains, students listen	Introducing new topics, large groups
Discussion Method	Students and teacher discuss a topic together	Critical thinking, opinion formation
Demonstration Method	Teacher shows, students observe and follow	Science experiments, practical skills
Project Method	Students complete real-world projects	Problem-solving, creativity
Play Way Method	Learning through games and activities	Early childhood education
Question-Answer Method	Teacher asks questions, students answer	Checking understanding, Socratic method
Cooperative Learning	Students learn in groups together	Social skills, peer teaching
Discovery/Inquiry Method	Students discover knowledge themselves	Science, curiosity-based learning

12.6 EDUCATION SYSTEM IN NEPAL

Level	Grades	Age Group	Details
Early Childhood Dev. (ECD)	Pre-primary	3–5 years	Play-based learning, school readiness
Basic Level	Grades 1–8	6–14 years	Compulsory and free education
Secondary Level	Grades 9–12	14–18 years	SEE at Grade 10; NEB at Grade 12
Higher Education	Bachelor onwards	18+ years	TU, Pokhara U, Kathmandu U, Purbanchal U

Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MoEST) — governs education policy
Curriculum Development Centre (CDC) — develops school curricula
National Examination Board (NEB) — conducts Grade 11 and 12 exams
Education Review Office (ERO) — monitors quality of education
Right to Education: Free and compulsory basic education guaranteed by Constitution of Nepal (2015)

PART F: EXAM STRATEGY & STUDY PLAN

SECTION 13: STUDY TIPS & PLAN

13.1 Stream-wise Subject Overview

Stream	Compulsory Subjects	Optional / Stream Subjects
Science	English, Nepali, Mathematics	Physics, Chemistry, Biology OR Computer Science
Management	English, Nepali, Business Math	Accountancy, Economics, Business Studies
Humanities	English, Nepali, Social Studies	History, Geography, Political Science, Sociology
Education	English, Nepali, Education	Child Development, Psychology, Pedagogy

13.2 8-Week Study Plan

Week	Science Focus	Management Focus	Humanities/Education Focus
Week 1	Math: Algebra — Sets, Indices, Log, Quadratic	Math: Same + Business Math basics	Math: Same + Geography basics
Week 2	Math: Geometry, Trig, Mensuration, Coord.	Accountancy: Journal entries, Ledger	History: Nepal — Ancient to Medieval
Week 3	Physics: Motion, Newton's Laws, Work-Energy	Economics: Demand, Supply, Market	History: Modern Nepal + Civics
Week 4	Physics: Pressure, Heat, Light, Electricity	Accountancy: Final accounts, Depreciation	Geography: Physical, Maps, Climate
Week 5	Chemistry: Atomic structure, Bonding, Reactions	Economics: National income, Money, Banking	Education: Child development, Piaget
Week 6	Biology: Cell, Body systems, Photosynthesis	Business Studies: Marketing, Management	Education: Teaching methods, Theories
Week 7	English + Nepali full grammar revision	English + Nepali full grammar revision	English + Nepali full grammar revision
Week 8	Mock tests + Past papers + Weak topics	Mock tests + Past papers + Weak topics	Mock tests + Past papers + Weak topics

13.3 Daily Study Schedule

Time	Activity
6:00 – 7:00 AM	Mathematics practice (10–15 problems)
7:00 – 8:00 AM	Science / Stream subject reading
8:00 – 10:00 AM	School
4:00 – 5:00 PM	English grammar rules + exercises
5:00 – 6:00 PM	Nepali / Social Studies
7:00 – 8:30 PM	Revision of the day + weak topics
8:30 – 9:00 PM	Read short notes / flashcards

13.4 Key Formulas to Memorize

Subject	Must-Know Formulas
Mathematics	Quadratic formula, AP/GP terms & sums, all trig identities, distance/midpoint, volume formulas
Physics	v=u+at, F=ma, W=Fd, P=VI, 1/f=1/v+1/u, PV=nRT, Q=mcΔT
Chemistry	Atomic structure, pH formula, neutralization reactions, organic compound formulas
Biology	Photosynthesis equation, respiration equation, fertilization chromosome numbers
Accountancy	Accounting equation, Gross Profit, Net Profit, Depreciation formulas
Economics	GDP = C+I+G+(X-M), Money multiplier, Per capita income

All the best for your entrance exam! Work hard, stay consistent, and you will succeed!

Brief Notes Before NEB